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This essay was
part of my coursework on the MA in Hypermedia I took at University
of Westminster 1998-99.
In this essay
I will be focusing on the history of the telephone, both the technology
and the impact it has had on society. I will examine why technological
leaps occur, then run through an outline history of the development
of the telephone, concentrating on the British telephone system.
I will then be looking at possible futures for telecommunications
system with reference to the internet.
The Internet
uses the telephone as one of its building blocks, both culturally
and also physically: using the network of telephone cables and switches.
The development of the telephone was similarly a further development
of telegraph technology. The future development of the internet
is affected by the future development of the telecommunications
network.
What
Prompts a Leap in Technological Development?
History
of the Telephone
Telegraphy
Development of Telephone Technology
Development of the British Telephone
System
Monopolies
The Effect of the Telephone on Society
The Effect of the Internet on Society
Possible Futures: History of Convergence or Divergence?
References
Bibliography
What
Prompts a Leap in Technological Development?
It is debatable
why technological leaps occur: there are several schools of thought
on the matter, including Kondratieffs Wave theory 1(Nessman, Les,
www-nmr.banffcentre.ab.ca/WPG/KonJob/html/kondratieff.html), technological
determinism (the 'Wired Ideology'), and that believed by the Regulation
School.
The Russian
Economist, Nikolai Kondratieff, working in the 1920's and 1930's,
proposed that modernity operates on long wave cycles, each cycle
of which is characterised by a technological paradigm: the second
wave being characterised by the telephone. Technological leaps are
therefore seen as economically determined.
The Regulation
School, a group of French economists which grew out of the radical
protests of the sixties, proposes that technological leaps occur
in response to social change and are arbitrary, not pre-determined
as Kondratieff would posit.
Wired Ideology,
as personified by Marshall McLuhan, follow the school of thought
called Technological Determinism: that is, that the history of the
development of society can be explained by a series of technologies.
The technology changes our psychological relationship with the outside
world, which in turn influences how we develop new technologies.
Thus technological leaps are driven by the technology itself.
Technological
innovation can be technology driven, but whether it is used or not
will be determined by both economic and social factors and will
have to survive in the marketplace.
For example,
a psychologist is currently working at Hewlett Packard on researching
how people interact with computers, how they use them and what for.
He is specifically looking at how people use voice mail. HP 'techies'
have to date been working on the assumption that people want to
keep their voice mail records, (as with e-mail), and have therefore
been developing database storage systems which would enable easy
storage and retrieval of the huge amounts of information generated
by voice mail. On research the psychologist discovered
that people do not want to store. Thus if the product had gone into
production, time and money would have been wasted on producing a
product that performed tasks not required by the user. To some extent
companies can influence what their customers want and need through
efficient marketing (who would have expected a computer in every
home ten years ago?), but a new technology also has to be acceptable
culturally.
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History
of the Telephone
As stated previously,
the Internet uses the technology of the telephone as one of its
building blocks. Similarly, the development of the telephone built
on the technology of telegraphy.
Telegraphy
Telegraphy
was developed in the 1830's, and in 1844 there was the first public
demonstration of Morse's electric telegraph, from Baltimore to Washington.
Electrical pulses were sent down a wire in a binary code of 'dots
and dashes' called Morse code. The worlds first telegraph line opened
between Paddington and the City in 1839.
The need for
communicating at long distance arose from Britain's' need to control
its empire, Britain thus dominated world telegraphy networks.
Telegraphy revolutionised
speed of communication: that which had previously been as fast as
a horse was now almost instantaneous (providing you were in the
right place: at a receiver!). To begin with messages travelled at
1.5 words/minute: a miracle at that time, slow compared to today's
speeds of up to 150 million bits/sec.
Many technical
problems beset the development of telegraphy, all of which were
gradually overcome. Overland lines were prone to breaking and earthed
if they got damaged and wet, undersea cables leaked, the signal
was weak and needed booster stations at regular intervals for any
great distance, there were also problems with induction: conversation
'leaking' from adjacent wires. These technical problems were overcome.
With much money to be made for those providing the solutions, Lord
Kelvin made his fortune out of developing a way of insulating undersea
cables.
In 1858 the
first Atlantic telegraph cable was completed but failed after 26
days due to the voltage being too high: not until 1866 was there
permanent communication by wire from the United States to Europe
with the completion of the second Atlantic cable.
However, one
of the key problems with telegraphy was that it was very expensive:
capital equipment costs were high and skilled labour was needed
to code and decode messages. No matter how many of the other technical
problems of telegraphy had been solved, this problem was inherent
in the technology itself and there needed to be a new leap in technology
to solve this problem.
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Development
of Telephone Technology
The telephone
was invented by Alexander Graham Bell, who was researching into
ways of enabling deaf people to hear. The first words spoken on
telephone were on March 10th in 1876, when Bell spoke the first
complete sentence transmitted by variable resistance transmitter
... "Mr. Watson, come here. I want you!" 2 (Webb and Associates,
http://www.webbconsult.com/timeline.html, 1998)
As Bell said
himself, the great advantage that the telephone had over telegraphy
was that it could be used by anyone, as "all other telegraphic
machines produce signals which require to be translated by experts,
and such instruments are therefore extremely limited in their application,
but the telephone actually speaks, and for this reason it can be
utilised for nearly every purpose for which speech is employed"
3 (Flammger, 1995)
The telephone
itself suffered from problems which were overcome as the technology
developed.
In 1879, telephone
subscribers began to be designated by numbers rather than names
- as a result of an epidemic of measles. A Lowell, Massachusetts
doctor, concerned about the inability of replacement exchange operators
to put calls through because they would not be familiar with the
names associated with all the jacks on the switchboards, suggested
the alpha-numeric system of identifying customers by a two- letter
and five-digit system. Problems with the telephone also occurred
when other applications of electricity flourished, especially trolley
cars and street lamps. Lightning also interfered with the system,
wreaking havoc on the lines. Long-distance service was established
and grew in the 1880s using metallic circuits. A battery system
developed by Hammond V. Hayes in 1888 allowed a central battery
to supply all telephones on an exchange with power, rather than
relying upon each unit's own battery.
The first telephone
invented used one wire, from telephone to telephone. To establish
networks, it was more efficient to have each phone connected to
a central exchange where the caller could have their line connected
to the receivers line, rather than having a wire going from each
telephone in the network to each other telephone in the network.
At first this process was done manually, by village switchboard
operators. This obviously was more expensive than an automatic system
would be, and was also subject to other problems that come with
human operation of machinery. In fact, the electromechanical selector
switch was invented in 1889 by Almon Strowger, a Kansas City undertaker,
who was motivated by the fact that his business was suffering because
the local telephone switchboard operator failed to put his calls
through as she was a friend of a business competitor. The Strowger
switch was a major advance in replacing the human switchboard operator.
The switch was not widely used to begin with due to the expense
of producing it.
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Development
of the British Telephone System
To begin with,
the telephone was used primarily as a tool of government and business.
Telephones enabled people to control others at a distance: Britain
oversaw their colonies, and Industrialists were able to manage their
factories and suppliers at a distance if necessary. Today the telephone
is still used for those purposes, as is the Internet, but both are
also used for personal communications. What started as a relatively
expensive business tool has, through mass marketing and the consequent
fall in price, become also a tool for personal use.
There were early
experiments with using telephone for other purposes: in Hungary
in the 1890's telephone was used as a radio is today: for mass broadcasts
of music: it was dubbed 'the pleasurephone'. The problem this incurred
was that the sound transmission was of poor quality. How technologies
come to be used is affected both by their efficiency at the task
and also by the surrounding culture. For example, radio transmission
was originally developed to be used as long distance telegraphy,
i.e. as one to one interactive communication, especially as ship
to shore communication. It was only later used as one to many passive
communication, developing through hobbyists building their own radio
sets and then commercial stations being established by advertisers.
Similarly early experiments such as the one above were made in different
applications of the telephone. Today the internet is being used
not only for interactive communications, both one to one and one
to many, but it is also being used for real time broadcasting of
sound and vision.
The telephone
was used primarily for business purposes because that was seen as
the most likely way that telephone companies could make a profit.
In Britain in the 1890's and 1900's the telephone was seen as a
'business appliance'. Independent networks of telephones were being
established by private companies all over Britain for business purposes:
for example, in Glasgow there were separate telephone exchanges
for doctors, lawyers, stockbrokers and tradesmen. Eventually these
were interlinked forming The Douglas Exchange. In 1890 the total
number of British subscribers was approx. 25,000, but most of them
could not connect with each other as they were connected to different
exchanges. It became apparent that the benefits of having a telephone
were inherent in the network you had access to - the more people
you could access, the greater benefit of the telephone. The cost
of having a telephone at the turn of the century was £10, prohibitive
to most people and unattractive to most subscribers because of the
low connectivity. Today in Britain, the number of households with
access to the Internet is 960,000 4 (as of June 1997, National Opinion
Poll Research Group 1997). At present therefore there is little
connectivity with other Britons, but there is great world connectivity,
especially with North America. Internet use will become more widely
spread in Britain as cost of linking up falls due to market competition.
There was little
incentive for telephone companies to invest in the networks infrastructure
or co-ordinate their networks, due to an Act of Parliament which
was passed in 1869 giving the Postmaster General the exclusive right
to set up and operate inland telegraphs. In 1890 the post office
established that the telephone was a telegraph in the sense of the
1869 Act, thus ensuring that they had the right to seize the assets
of private companies who did invest in telephones and telephone
networks. The Post Office was also loathed to invest in the system
as it had put a lot of investment in its telegraph systems.
The National
Telephone Company was established in 1889 and made a 30% profit
p.a., which it did not invest in infrastructure, and in 1889 announced
that there were enough telephone lines in Britain. The telephone
system in 1898 reached an all time low, with a parliamentary committee
finding that: 'the telephone service was not of general benefit
either in the United Kingdom at large or even in those limited portions
of it where exchanges survived.' 5 (Zorkoczy, P and Campbell,
D, 1977, p25)
Today there
are similar problems with lack of investment in infrastructure through
shortsightedness.
In 1898 state
intervention was required, taking the development of the British
telephone network out of the hands of private investors, who were
failing to invest in infrastructure. The Post Office was therefore
provided with £2 million to enable it to compete with private
enterprise, private companies were not allowed to set up exchanges
in new areas without the consent of the post office, and 13 local
authorities set up their own telephone exchanges. one of these:
Hull, remains today. In 1912 private telephone companies were taken
over by the government.
In the 1920's
private companies offered to take over the telephone system because
it was failing. In 1929 manufacturers of telephone equipment were
complaining that the GPO was living hand to mouth, being starved
of capital with which to finance long term development, and by the
1950's it was obvious that the system needed to be funded on a long
term and not year to year basis. The telephone network had gone
from private ownership to state ownership but the problem of investment
had still not been solved.
In 1961 the
Post Office was given wider control of its finances, separating
its' income from the Treasury. this improved business and other
service but investment was still low. In the 1970's, the telephone
network was used for social and political reasons which had nothing
to do with the provision of an efficient telephone service: namely
to subsidise British Industry by creating jobs in he electrical
and manufacturing sectors, and to keep unemployment figures down.
Britain has had problems in the past because the focus has been
on ownership rather than service delivery: The debate has tended
to focus on whether the telephone network should be state or privately
owned, not what would deliver the best service.
'Government
regulation of economic activity is very often justified by appeal
to a lengthy series of non- economic arguments of spurious validity.
Telecommunication regulation is no exception.'6 (Meyer,
Wilson, Baughcum, Burton and Caouette, 1980,)
In 1981 British
Telecom was privatised for the same reasons the telephone network
was originally nationalised in 1912, i.e. poor services and lack
of investment in the infrastructure. It was hoped that privatisation
would result in competing telephone companies providing better services
at lower prices for the consumer. The privatisation also had the
side effect of releasing huge amounts of money from the sell off
of BT which went to the treasury. In the last few years cable telephone
has been introduced as well, providing some competition to BT. However,
the cable companies still have to lease lines from BT.
Today, the
British telecommunications industry is regulated by OFTEL, a non-ministerial
Government department, which is 'independent of ministerial control'
(Oftel, http://www.oftel.gov.uk/)7. OFTEL's purpose is to ensure
fair competition between telecommunications providers and to deal
with complaints about telecommunications services or apparatus.
Their website states that OFTEL's goal is:
'for customers
to get the best possible deal in terms of quality, choice and value
for money. Our main means of achieving this is by promoting effective
and sustainable competition. More competition will lead to real
choice - three or more operators or service providers knocking at
the door offering a full range of services at a price to suit the
customer.'
It is hard
to see how real competition can occur whilst all service providers
are reliant on renting BT's infrastructure.
The telecommunication
(especially cable and mobile phones) infrastructure in Britain is
also being built by American and global corporations. Eva Pascoe
in The Independent in October 1997 said:
'This
is too haphazard, driven by commercial considerations without a
thought for the implications of development of society as
a whole. We need planners who can ensure equal (wiring) coverage
of the countryside, city and less economically attractive areas....national
and supra-national planning is needed to provide the best value
solution...'
As Eva Pascoe
says, there needs to be a co-ordinated and fair development of the
telecommunications infrastructure. The following quote, written
in 1973 in 'The British Telephone System' Open University, applies
as much today as it did then:
'Our study
of the development of the system suggests that an overall rather
than piece meal approach is essential for building up an efficient
and economically viable telephone service'. 8
(Zorkoczy,
P and Campbell, D, 1977, p25)
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Monopolies
A telephone
network forms a natural monopoly - that is, when telephone networks
were originally set up, such as in Glasgow, subscribers will gain
the most benefits from joining the larger network. The benefits
of a telephone are not all inherent in the hardware, but are primarily
in the network that the hardware provides an access point to. The
bigger the network, the greater the benefits. Thus, in Glasgow,
the separate networks for doctors, lawyers etc. joined together
forming the Douglas Exchange, which eventually will have joined
the nationalised network of telephones.
As we saw above,
Britain has moved from private ownership of separate telephone networks,
to state ownership, back to 'private' ownership of one network with
state regulation. All solutions have been wanting due to lack of
investment in infrastructure and lack of foresight: the best solution
has been Americas AT&T, which was a state regulated private
monopoly, led by people with the foresight to realise that investment
in the infrastructure was a prerequisite of success of the network
and service as a whole.
In Britain,
the system has been hamstrung through lack of vision and use of
the telephone industry (as with other state owned industries) for
solving economic and political problems which had little or nothing
to do with the provision of a good telephone service.
The future
of Internet access in Britain is dependent on the telephone network.
With respect to hardware, there is a need for investment in infrastructure
so that we can have broad bandwidth cables not only under our streets
but from our streets to our homes, and price wise, if we are to
compete on an international basis on the net we need free local
calls as in America. This would benefit the country as a whole as
it would enable us to compete for business on the web all over the
world
The problem
is who will pay for the investment this requires? Huge investment
in infrastructure requires long term vision: longer than the 4 year
term of government office. Private companies are unlikely to pour
money into investing in something which will in the long term benefit
the country as a whole but maybe not their company in particular.
The best solution
so far appears to be that of AT&T in America which was a regulated
private monopoly. AT&T foresaw that the benefits of a telephone
were inherent in the network it was connected to: the bigger
the network, the greater the benefits. In the early twentieth century
America was the richest nation on earth, and also had the right
to the Freedom of Speech in its constitution. This climate, together
with the leadership of AT&T, enabled AT&T to realise that
the telephone was not just a 'business appliance' but also had the
potential to be a mass produced consumer good for personal use.
Today the telephone
network today is an integral part not just of our economic but also
of our social welfare. It's use has stretched far beyond that of
what it was originally developed to do: serve business and allow
people to talk to each other in different rooms of the same house!
It affects our personal relationships just as much as it affects
our economic activity. As such, I believe that the telephone network
of Britain needs money invested in its infrastructure by a state
which has a long term vision of the future. A government which is
wanting to use the 'Internet' to fix problems such as a failing
education system will itself fail. Britain is well placed to compete
in the global web industry through its history of internationalism
and through its skilled computer and web workforce, but this can
only be achieved with the support of an efficient telecommunications
infrastructure.
In the next
section I will look briefly at how the telephone has affected society.
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The
Effect of the Telephone on Society
The telephone
has had a huge impact on society: economically, politically, and
socially.
One of the
reasons for the enthusiasm for the telephone was that it facilitated
'the efficient
organisation and operation of large-scale, integrated mass production
manufacturing enterprises... No previous mode of communication was
able to combine the latter's speed with its simplicity and economy
of operation'. 9 Aronson,
Sidney, 1971
It enabled
industrialists at the turn of the century to control their suppliers
and workforces at a distance, enabling mass production plants to
be established. It has played an integral part in enabling the establishment
multi- national and global corporations.
Patterns of
population distribution have been affected by the telephone. The
mass production centres of the manufacturing industry concentrated
workforces around the factories: in cities. As cities have grown,
the population working in them has moved outwards, to the suburbs.
Today's
global demands for computer networking, entertainment and communication
means that global networks are being developed which are rapidly
transcending national boundaries. The quote below was written in
1945, about telephones, but is could just as well have been written
today about the internet:
'I may analogise
the present situation in the communication field to that in ocean
transportation in the past. there was a time when the master of
a vessel was in effect the diplomatic representative of his country
in contact with the governments in the foreign ports where he touched.
That situation is not unlike our present situation in which the
management's of international communications companies are in a
position to shape our international communications policy through
their ability to negotiate and make arrangements with the representatives
of foreign governments. Managers of communications companies may
at times be in the position of serving interests other than their
own national interest.10 (Sampson, Anthony 1973)
The telephone
has made a huge impact on our social interactions and our family
relationships. Hubert Casson told only half the story when he said:
"Who
could have foreseen what the telephone bells have done to ring out
the old ways and to ring in the new; to ring out delay and isolation
and to ring in the efficiency and friendliness of a truly united
people?11 (Casson,
H,1910)
The telephone
has in some instances lessened isolation and in others created it,
through enabling people to live apart, multi-generational living
patterns becoming a thing of the past, now that people can leave
their families but still retain some contact wherever they are in
the world.
The telephone
brings its own form of communication: you can hear emotion, but
you cannot see the person's body language, it is easier to lie in
a letter than on the telephone, easier to lie on the telephone than
face to face, and easiest of all to lie on a website or in e-mail!
Here, Colin
Cherry writes about the difference between telephone conversations
and writing letters:
'Technically
speaking, the two are closely alike, but socially they are utterly
different... The telephone... is not only personal, in the sense
that private letters are, but it has far greater significance, for
the simple reason that human conversations are possible. Conversation
is an essential human relationship. When you speak to someone on
the phone, even a stranger, you hear far more than factual premeditated
messages; you respond to tones of voice, to moods; you may interject
a remark; it is a person you are involved with, not a machine.
Though unseen,
you continue to gesture, to smile or frown, and move your hands;
you are conversing, linked, 'involved' and 'committed'. You can
discuss, persuade, enquire, argue and perhaps reach agreement in
a few minutes, in a personal way. Rapid converse, enquiry, resolution
are the powers offered by telephones to organisations.' 12
(Cherry, Colin,
1974)
People answer
the telephone because it rings, not because they actually want human
contact at that moment. A telephone call in the middle of the night
induces anxiety and fear. It has been noted that older generations
experience anxiety when the telephone rings, as they dread it bringing
bad news. As J.Brooks said:
" The
telephone's actual ring---- more, perhaps, that any other sound
in our daily lives--- evokes hope, relief, fear, anxiety, joy, according
to our expectations. The telephone is our nerve-end to society."
13(Brooks, J., 1976)
Here is an example
of how far the telephone can intrude into our lives:
'Some years
ago in New Jersey, a mad sniper killed thirteen people then barricaded
himself in a house while he shot it out with the police. An enterprising
reporter found out the phone number of the house and called. The
killer put down his rifle and answered the phone. 'What is it?'
he asked. 'I'm very busy.'14 (Carpenter,
Edmund, 1976)
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The
Effect of the Internet on Society
The internet
extends the impact of telecommunications, not just for sound but
also data transmission and visual information. Whereas the telephone
only enables one to one communication, the internet extends this
to one to many. E-mail is the cheapest way to communicate on the
internet, but video conferencing and real-time broadcasts also use
the internet. The cheapness and availability of access is growing
all the time, and the Internet has the potential of enabling even
very small businesses to reach a global market.
The internet
enables fast and efficient communication anywhere on earth, so enables
the new 'information workers' created by the internet to work from
virtually anywhere. The telephone was a key point in the shift from
20th century craftwork/artisanship to factory work, as it supported
creation of centralised workplaces. The internet in its turn may
reverse this pattern, where people choose to live in places not
because of how close to work they are, but for other reasons. The
new information workers will have a freedom of movement never seen
before.
Today's
global demands for computer networking, entertainment and communication
means that global networks are being developed which are rapidly
transcending national boundaries. In transcending national boundaries
the internet challenges the legal, political and business systems
all over the world.
The internet
brings about entirely new ways of communication. The most frequent
use of the Internet is e-mail, which has developed its own etiquette
and ways of communicating emotions, and has brought about new ways
of communicating with strangers.
E-mail
lists are a good example of new ways of communicating being made
possible via the Internet. Recently, on an e-mail list of multimedia
workers in Bristol15(Underscore), a group of 6 people on the list
sent each other (and, unfortunately, everyone else on the list)
e-mail about a particular website, resulting in everyone on the
list receiving 32 e-mails in one day. The list was thus being used
as a forum for conversation, but a conversation which involved only
6 people but which 40 or so people are forced to overhear. Although
there is a difference between having a verbal conversation and a
written one, with all the potential misunderstanding lack of visual
signals can lead to, parallels can be drawn between old forms of
communication and new: this example being remarkably similar to
being forced to listen to rowdy lads in the pub.
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Possible
Futures: History of Convergence or Divergence?
The telephone,
radio, television, computer and video games industries are converging:
'coming together', 'uniting', and forming the blood supply of the
new information society. They are bringing together people and their
ideas and their money, as has never been possible before. A group
of anarchists in England can converse with Sandanistas in Mexico,
a student in America can converse with a Russian hacker, but all
these people have one thing in common: access to the hardware and
software and knowledge required.
There is a
danger that human society could become fractured, that the history
of the Internet is not one of convergence of society but of divergence,
where the information society is accessible to the few rich developed
nations, and that other nations are left out in the cold. Global
Corporations will have the power to make decisions affecting millions
of people lives, surpassing laws of individual countries.
The other possibility
is that developing nations, such as India, where there is a burgeoning
software industry, become involved in new technology and the whole
balance of power shifts focus to countries where labour is cheap
i.e. the developing world. The new ease of communication will enable
the world to become a global marketplace.
To finish, below
are two sides of an argument used in a Seminar at the ICA with Shirley
Williams and Christopher Price in 1982. Since then, information
technology has struggled between the two sides of the argument,
and will continue to do so. The growth of IT is beyond any nations
control, we can only act to ensure that our nations benefit from
the IT revolution through employment, benefit and privacy laws.
'IT will
bring greater decentralisation, a reallocation of power from the
hands of the few to the terminals of the many, more flexible working
patterns and increased leisure.'
IT will
bring more state control, a new class system based on access to
information, invasion of privacy on an unprecedented scale, mass
unemployment and social disintegration.'16
(Sieghart,
Paul, 1982)
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References
1. Nessman,
Les, www-nmr.banffcentre.ab.ca/WPG/KonJob/html/kondratieff.html
2. Webb and
Associates, http://www.webbconsult.com/timeline.html, 1998
3. Flammger, Dawne, 1995, A History of the Telephone,
http://cinemedia.net/SFCV-RMIT-Annex/rnaughton/TELEPHONE_FLAMMGER.html
From an address Bell made in 1878, as cited in Young,P, Person to
Person: The International Impact of the Telephone. Cambridge: Granta
Editions. 1991
4. National
Opinion Poll Research Group, www.nopres.co.uk/, 1998
5. Zorkoczy,
P and Campbell, D, The British Telephone System, Open University,
1977, p25
6. Meyer, Wilson,
Baughcum, Burton and Caouette, Economics of Competition in the Telecommunications
Industry, Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain Publishers Inc1980
7. Oftel, www.oftel.gov.uk/about/oftguide.htm
8. Zorkoczy,
P and Campbell, D, The British Telephone System, Open University,
1977, p25
9. Aronson,
Sidney, The Sociology of the Telephone, International Journal of
Comparative Sociology 12: 153-67, 1971
10. Paul Porter,
Chairman of Federal Communications Commission, 1945 as cited in
Sampson,
Anthony, The Sovereign State, The Secret History of IT, Hodder and
Stoughton, 1973
11. Casson,
H., The History of the Telephone, Chicago: A. C. McClurg. 1910
12. Cherry,
Colin, On Communication, Ancient and Modern', David Potter &
Philip Sarre: Dimensions of Society: A Reader. London: University
of London Press/Open University 1974
13. Brooks,
J., Telephone: The First Hundred Years. New York: Harper & Row,
1976
14.Carpenter,
Edmund, Oh, What a Blow that Phantom Gave me! St Albans: Paladin,
1976
15 Underscore,
www.bristol.net/underscore/
16 Ed. by Sieghart,
Paul, Micro-Chips With Everything, 1982, Comedia Publishing Group,
P21
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Kondratieff
Waves after 1970
http://www.sfc.keio.ac.jp/~s94246hs/study/sec2.html
Telstra Corporation
http://www.telstra.com.au/prod-ser/educdocs/educdocs/linknat.html
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